AND WE CONTINUE ON ISLAM AND ZOROASTRIANISM, BE CHOCKED
1. The Night Journey.
The first matter with which we shall here deal is the celebrated account of Muhammad's Night Journey. This is thus referred to in a verse which we have already11 quoted (Surah XVII., Al Asra' — also called Surah Banu Israil' — 1):—
"Praise be to Him who caused His servant to journey by night from the Sacred Mosque to the Farther Mosque, whose enclosure We have blessed, that We might show him of Our signs."
it is well known that commentators on the Qur'an are by no means agreed with regard to this verse, some thinking that Muhammad merely dreamt that he made the journey mentioned in it, others taking it in a literal sense and adding many details from Tradition, and others again explaining it in a mystical or figurative sense. Ibn Ishaq for example, informs us, giving his traditional authority, that Muhammad's favourite wife 'Ayishah used to say, "The body of the Apostle of God did not disappear, but God took his spirit on the journey by night." Another Tradition reports that Muhammad himself said, "My12 eye was sleeping and my heart was awake." The celebrated mystical commentator Muhiyyu'd Din accepted the whole account only in a metaphorical sense13. As, however, we are not concerned seriously to discuss the question of the occurrence of this "Night Journey," we need not deal further with this view. It is certain that the great mass of Muhammadan commentators and Traditionalists believe that Muhammad actually went from Mecca to Jerusalem and also visited the heavens, and they give long accounts, of deep and abiding interest to Muslims, regarding what he did and what he saw. It is with this Tradition that we have to deal, and we shall see that it is easy to trace the origin of its main features to earlier legends, and especially to Zoroastrian sources. This is true, whether we believe with the vast mass of Muhammadans that Muhammad himself gave such an account of his Miraj as the ones we now proceed to translate, or infer that the whole legend is the production of somewhat later times14. We quote Ibn Ishaq's account first, because it is the earliest that has reached us. It is given by Ibn Hisham, his editor and continuator, in the following manner. Muhammad, we are informed, asserted that Gabriel came and awoke him twice to go on the "Night Journey," but he fell asleep again. Then he continues:—
"Accordingly he (Gabriel) came to me the third time: then he touched me with his foot, and I sat up. He seized me by my arm, and I stood up with him. He then sent forth to the door of the Mosque: and lo! a white animal, (in appearance) between a mule and an ass; on its flanks were two wings, with which it rules both its hind feet: its fore-foot it sets down at the limit of its glance. He mounted me upon it, then he went forth with me, (in such a way that) he does not precede me and I do not precede him. When I approached it (the animal) to mount it, it reared. Accordingly Gabriel placed his hand upon its mane: then he said, ‘O Buraq, art thou not ashamed of what thou art doing I (I swear) by God, O Buraq, there never mounted thee before Muhammad a servant of God more honoured with God than he is.’ Accordingly (Buraq) became so much ashamed that he poured forth sweat. Then he stood still till I mounted him." "Al Hasan in his Tradition has said, ‘The Apostle of God went, and Gabriel went with him, until he reached the Holy House (Jerusalem) with him. There he found Abraham and Moses and Jesus amid a band of the prophets. Accordingly the Apostle of God acted as their leader (Imam) in worship, and prayed with them, thereupon (Gabriel) brought two vessels, in one of which there was wine and in the other milk. Accordingly the Apostle of God took the vessel of milk and drank of it, and left the vessel of wine. Therefore Gabriel said to him, ‘Thou hast been guided to Nature and thy people have been guided to Nature, O Muhammad, and wine is forbidden you.’ Then the Apostle of God departed, and when it was morning he went to the Quraish and gave them this information. Then said very many people, ‘By God! this matter is clear: by God! a caravan takes a month from Mecca to Syria, and a month in returning, and does that fellow Muhammad go in one night and come back to Mecca15?’"
According to this narrative, Muhammad went only from Mecca to Jerusalem and back in one night. Later traditions amplify the journey considerably, all, however, professing to give the account which the reciter declared came from Muhammad himself. In the Mishkatu'l Masabih the following story is given, with the usual string of names of those through whom the tradition was handed down:—
"The Prophet16 of God related, ... While I was asleep, ... lo! a comer came to me: then he opened what is between this and this ..., and he took out my heart. Then I was brought a golden cup full of faith. My heart was washed, then it was replaced, then I came to myself. ... Then I was brought an animal smaller than a mule and taller than a donkey, and white: it is called Buraq, and places its front feet at the far end of its range of sight. Then I was set upon it, and Gabriel carried me off until I came to the lowest heaven. He demanded admittance. It was said, ‘Who is that?’ He said, ‘Gabriel.’ It was said, ‘And who is with thee?’ He said, ‘Muhammad.’ It was said, ‘And was he sent for?’ He said, ‘Yes.’ It was said, ‘Welcome to him, and very good is his coming.’ Then one opened. Accordingly, when I entered, lo! Adam was there. Gabriel said, ‘This is thy father Adam, therefore salute him.’ Accordingly I saluted him and he returned the salute. Then he said, ‘Welcome to the good son and the good prophet.’" The story goes on with wearisome repetition of much the same account, telling us how Gabriel took Muhammad from heaven to heaven, being asked the same questions at each door, and answering them in precisely the same way. In the second heaven Muhammad was introduced to John the Baptist and Jesus, in the third to Joseph, in the fourth to Idris, in the fifth to Aaron, in the sixth to Moses. The latter wept, and when asked why, replied that the cause of his tears was the knowledge that more of Muhammad's followers than of his own people would enter Paradise. In the seventh heaven Muhammad met Abraham, and the usual greeting took place. "Afterwards I was carried aloft to the Sidratu'l Muntaha17, and lo its fruits were like the pots of a potter, and lo! its leaves were like the ears of an elephant. He said, ‘This is the Lotus of the Boundary.’ Then lo! four rivers, two interior rivers and two exterior rivers. I said, ‘What are these two, O Gabriel?’ He said, ‘The two interior ones are two rivers in Paradise, but the two exterior ones are the Nile and the Euphrates.’"
The passage goes on to mention many other particulars of the journey, among others the incident of Adam's weeping, which we have18 already spoken of; but it is unnecessary to mention them all.
In the popular works19 from which the great mass of modern Muslims obtain their knowledge of their prophet's life, the account of the Mi'raj is far more full of marvels. When he had reached the Lotus of the Boundary, beyond which Gabriel dared not advance with him, the angel Israfil took charge of Muhammad and led him to his own realm, whence the prophet advanced to the very Throne of God, being bidden by God's own Voice not to remove his sandals, since their touch20 would honour even the court of God. After a few more details, which to ordinary minds seem both puerile arid blasphemous, we are told that Muhammad entered behind the veil21, and that God said to him, "Peace be upon thee, and the mercy of God, and His blessing, O Prophet." In these later narratives of the Miraj we find mythology unrestrained by any regard for reason or truth.
We must now inquire what was the source from which the idea of this night journey of Muhammad was derived. It is very possible that the legend as first of all related by Muhammad himself was based upon a dream, and it does not seem to have contained any account of an ascension, if we consider Surah LIII., 13-18, to be of later date. But we have to deal with the narrative contained in the Traditions, and these enter into very precise details regarding the Miraj or ascent." We shall see that there is good reason to believe that the legend in this form was invented in order to show that, in this respect as well as in all others, Muhammad was more highly privileged than any other prophet. The story may have incorporated elements from many quarters, but it seems to have been in the main based upon the account of the ascension of Arta Viraf contained in a Pahlavi book called "The Book22 of Arta Viraf," which was composed in the days of Ardashir Babagan, King of Persia, some 400 years before Muhammad's Hijrah, if we may believe Zoroastrian accounts.
In that work we are informed that, finding that the Zoroastrian faith had to a great extent lost its hold upon the minds of the people of the Persian Empire, the Magian priests determined to support by fresh proofs the restoration of the faith which the zeal of Ardashir had undertaken to carry out. Therefore they selected a young priest of saintly life, and prepared him by various ceremonial purifications for an ascent into the heavens, in order that he might see what was there and bring back word whether it agreed or not with the account contained in their religions books. It is related that, when this young Arta Viraf was in a trance, his spirit ascended into the heavens under the guidance of an archangel named Sarosh, and passed from one storey to another, gradually ascending until he reached the presence of Ormazd23 himself. When Arta Viraf had thus beheld everything in the heavens and seen the happy state of their inhabitants, Ormazd commanded him to return to the earth as His messenger and to tell the Zoroastrians what he had seen. All his visions are fully related in the book which bears his name. It is unnecessary to quote it at length, but a few quotations will serve to show how evidently it served as a model for the Muhammadan legend of the ascent of Muhammad.
In the Arta' Viraf Namak (cap. vii, §§ 1-4) we read: ‘And I take the first step forward unto the Storey of the Stars, in Humat. ... And I see the souls of those holy ones, from whom light spreads out like a bright star. And there is a throne and a seat, very bright and lofty and exalted. Then I inquired of holy Sarosh and the angel Adhar, ‘What place is this, and who are these persons?’"
In explanation of this passage it should be mentioned that the "Storey of the Stars" is the first or lowest "court" of the Zoroastrian Paradise Adhar is the angel who presides over fire. Sarosh is the angel of obedience, and is one of the "Eternal Holy Ones" (Amesha-spentas later Amshaspands) or archangels of the Zoroastrian faith. He guides Arta Viraf through the different heavens, just as Gabriel does Muhammad.
The narrative goes on to relate how Arta Viraf reached the Storey of the Moon, or the second, and then the Storey of the Sun, which is the third of the celestial mansions. In the same way he was led on and on through every one of the heavens, until he was introduced into Ormazd's presence, and had the interview which is detailed in cap. xi in these words:—
"And finally up rose from his throne overlaid with gold the archangel Bahman: and he took my hand and brought me to Humat and Hukht and Hurast24, amid Ormazd and the archangels and the other holy ones and the Essence of Zoroaster the pure-minded ... and the other faithful ones and chiefs of the faith, than whom I have never seen anything brighter and better. And Bahman [said], ‘This is Ormazd.’ And I wished to offer a salutation before Him. And he said to me, ‘Salutation to thee, O Arta Viraf! Welcome! Thou hast come from that perishable world to this undefiled bright place.’ And he commanded holy Sarosh and the angel Adhar, ‘'Carry off Arta Viraf and show him the throne and the reward of the holy ones and also the punishment of the wicked.’ And finally holy Sarosh and the angel Adhar took my hand, and I was carried forward by them from place to place and I have seen those archangels and I have seen the other angels."
We are then told at considerable length how Arta Viraf visited Paradise and hell, and what he saw in each. After his visit to hell the tale goes on:—
"At25 last holy Sarosh and the angel Adhar took my hand and brought me forth from that dark, dreadful and terrible place, and they bore me to that place of brightness and the assembly of Ormazd and the archangels. Then I wished to offer a salutation before Ormazd. And He was kind. He said, ‘O faithful servant, holy Arta Viraf, apostle of the worshippers of Ormazd, go thou to the material world, speak with truth to the creatures, according as thou hast seen and known, since I, who am Ormazd, am here. Whosoever speaks rightly and truly, I hear and know. Speak thou to the wise ones.’ And when Ormazd spake thus, I remained astounded, for I saw a light and did not see a body, and I heard a voice, I knew that ‘this is Ormazd.’"
It is unnecessary to point out how great is the resemblance between all this and the Muhammadan legend of Muhammad's Miraj.
In the Zardusht-Namah, a work which was probably composed in the thirteenth century of the Christian era, there is related a legend that Zoroaster himself, centuries earlier than Arta Viraf, ascended up to heaven, and afterwards obtained permission to visit hell also. There we are told he saw Ahriman, who closely corresponds with the Iblis of the Qur'an.
Nor are such legends confined to the Persian portion of the Aryan world. In Sanskrit also we have similar tales, among which may be mentioned the Indralokagamanam, or "Journey to the World of Indra," the god of the atmosphere. There we are told that the hero Arjuna made a journey through the heavens, where he saw Indra's heavenly palace, named Vaivanti, which stands in the garden called Nandanam. The Hindu books tell us that ever-flowing streams water the fresh, green plants that grow in that beautiful place, and in its midst there stands a tree called Pakshajati, bearing a fruit styled Amrita or Immortality, the of Greek poets, of which whoever eats never dies. Beautiful flowers of varied hues adorn that tree; and whoever rests under its shade is granted the fulfilment of whatever desire he may conceive in his heart.
The Zoroastrians have also an account of the existence of a marvellous tree, called Hvapa in the Avesta and Humaya in Pahlavi, the meaning in each case being "possessed of good water," "well watered." In the Vendidad it is described in these words:— "In26 purity do the waters flow from the sea of Puitika into the sea of Vourukasha, to the tree Hvapa: there grow all plants and of all kinds." Hvapa and Pakshajati are identical with the Tuba' or tree of "goodness" of the Muhammadan paradise, which is too well known to need description here.
It must, however, be noted that very similar legends are found in certain Christian apocryphal works also, especially in the "Visio Pauli" and the "Testament of Abraham," to the latter of which we have already had to refer more than once. In the "Visio Pauli" we are told that Paul ascended to the heavens and beheld the four rivers of Paradise and Abraham also viewed the wonders of the heavens in his legendary "Testament," each returning to earth to relate what he had seen, just as Arta Viraf and Muhammad are said to have done. Of Abraham it is said: "And27 the archangel Michael descended and took Abraham up upon a cherubic chariot, and he raised him aloft into the ether of the sky, and brought him and sixty angels upon the cloud and Abraham was travelling over the whole inhabited earth upon a conveyance."
This "cherubic chariot" assumes another form in the Muhammadan legend, for Muhammad rides upon an animal called Buraq, riding being more in accordance with Arabian ideas than driving. The word Buraq is probably derived from the Hebrew baraq, "lightning," which in Arabic is barq, though a Pahlavi derivation is also possible.
Before passing on to consider other points, it should be noticed that the Book of Enoch contains a long account of the wonders of earth, hell and sky which Enoch saw in his28 vision . This apocryphal work no doubt had its influence on the legends contained in the "Visio Pauli" and the "Testament of Abraham" and thus upon the Muhammadan fable; but we can hardly suppose that the Arta Viraf Namak was affected, except perhaps indirectly, by these works. However, that is a question which does not affect our present inquiry.
Now regarding the Tree of Life in the Garden of Eden the Jews have many marvellous29 legends, which may have been borrowed from the Accadian tales about the "Sacred Tree of Eritu," mentioned in some of the earliest inscriptions found at Nippur by Dr. Hilprecht. Into these we need not now enter at any length, merely observing how great a contrast there is between all such legends and the simple narrative of fact contained in Genesis. The Jewish legends have affected the Muhammadan account of the heavenly Paradise, because the Muslim belief is that the Garden of Eden was situated in heaven. They therefore transfer to the heavenly Paradise much that the Jews have related about the earthly. In this respect they may have been led into error by the Christian apocryphal books, for the description of the four rivers, &c., given in the "Visio Pauli" (cap. xlv) evidently springs from the same strange fancy. It is hardly necessary to say that these apocryphal books were never accepted by any section of the Christian Church as of any weight or authority, though some of them had at one time a considerable degree of popularity with the ignorant multitude. Some of them have long been known, others have only recently been recovered after having been lost for centuries. Whether the Muhammadans derived their account of the tree Tuba' from the Zoroastrians or from Jewish fables, or whether both the latter (being of common origin) have not had some influence on the story, we need not inquire. The four rivers that Muhammad saw are those of the "Visio Pauli," and these latter are identical with the rivers of Eden, owing to the error which we have noticed above. It may be asked whether the biblical account of the ascension of Enoch, Elijah, our Lord, and the "catching30 up to the third heaven" of the person whom some have supposed to be St. Paul, have not been the original sources of all the fables which we have met with31. It is somewhat difficult and quite unnecessary to suppose this with reference to the Persian and Indian tales to which we have referred, though it may be true of the others. But if it be so, we find that the Muslim legend of Muhammad's ascent, like so many other legends8 about Muhammad, has been invented, on the model of other accounts like that contained in the Arta Viraf Namak, with the object of making it appear that he was in certain respects similar, though superior, to Christ and the other prophets who preceded him.